TEACHING BY PRINCIPLES

 Cognitive Principles

It is related mainly to mental and intellectual functions.

Principle 1: Automaticity

            Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a view language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Overanalyzing language, thinking too much about it forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity.

We will call our first principle of language learning and teaching the Principle of Automaticity and include under this rubric the importance of:

·         Subconscious  absorption of language through meaningful use,

·         Efficient and rapid movement away from a focus in the forms of language to a focus on the purposes to which language is put,

·         Efficient and rapid movement away from a capacity-limited control of a few bits and pieces to a relatively unlimited automatic mode of processing language forms, and

·         Resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms.

In fact adults, especially, can benefit greatly from certain focal processing of rules, definitions, and other formal aspects of language.

What does this principle, which ordinarily applies to adult instructions, mean to you as a teacher? Here are some possibilities:

1.    Because classroom learning normally begins with controlled, focal processing, there is no mandate to entirely avoid overt attention to language systems (grammar, phonology, discourse, etc.). That attention, however, should stop well short of blocking students from achieving a more automatic, fluent grasp of the language.

2.    Make sure that a large proportion of your lessons are focused on the “use” of language for purposes that are as genuine as a classroom context will permit. Students will gain more language competence in the long run if the functional purposes of language are the focal point.

3.    Automaticity isn’t gained overnight; therefore, you need to exercise patience with students as you slowly help them to achieve fluency.

            Principle 2: Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning. The Principle of Meaningful Learning tell us that some aural-oral drilling is appropriate; selected phonological elements like phonemes, rhythm, stress, and intonation, for example, can indeed be taught effectively through pattern repetition.

Some classroom implications of the Principle of Meaningful Learning:

1.    Capitalize on the power of meaningful learning by appealing to students’ interests, academic goals, and career goals.

2.    Whenever a new topic or concept is introduced. Attempt to anchor it in students’ existing knowledge and background so that it becomes associated with something they already know.

3.    Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning:

a.       Too much grammar explanation

b.      Too many abstract principles and theories

c.       Too much drilling and/or memorization

d.      Activities whose purposes are not clear

e.       Activities that do not contribute to accomplishing the goals of the lesson, unit, or course.

f.       Techniques that are so mechanical or tricky that Ss focus on the mechanics instead of on the language or meanings.

            Principle 3: The Anticipation of Reward

            Human beings are universally driven to act, or “behave,” by the anticipation of some sort of reward-tangible or intangible, short term or long term-that will ensue as a result of the behavior.

Considering all sides of the Reward Principle, the following constructive classroom implications may be drawn:

1.    Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and encouragement to them as a form of short-term reward (just enough to keep them confident in their ability but not so much that your praise simply becomes verbal gush).

2.    Encourage students to reward each other with compliments and supportive action.

3.    In classes with very low motivation, short term reminders of progress may help students to perceive their development. Gold stars and stickers (especially for young learners), issuing certain “privileges” for good work, and progress charts and graphs may spark some interest.

4.    Display enthusiasm and excitement yourself in the classroom. If you are dull, life-less, bored, and have low energy, you can be almost sure that it will be contagious.

5.    Try to get learners to see the long-term rewards in learning English by the pointing out what they can do with English where they live and around the world, the prestige in being able to use English, the academic benefits of knowing English, jobs that require English, and so on.

             Principle 4: Intrinsic Motivation

The principle is elaborated upon in detail in the next chapter as an example of how certain complex principles underlie a surprising number of our teaching practices.

The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary.

             Principle 5: Strategic Investment

Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to a learner’s own personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language.

For the time being, however, ponder two major pedagogical implications of the principle:

a)    The importance of recognizing and dealing with the wide variety of styles and strategies that learners successfully bring to the learning process and, therefore,

b)   The need for attention to each separate individual in the classroom.

Some aspects of the dilemma surrounding variation and the need for individualization can be solved through specific strategies-based instruction. Meanwhile, simply as a “sneak preview”, you might consider these questions as more grist for your teacher education mill:

·  Am I seizing whatever opportunity I can to let learners in on the “secrets” to develop and use strategies for learning and communication?

·  Do my lessons and impromptu feedback adequately sensitize students to the wisdom of their taking responsibility for their own learning?

·  How can I ensure that mu students will want to put forth the effort of trying out some strategies?

B.     Affective Principles

Affective principles are characterized by a large proportion of emotional involvement. They consist of feelings about self, about relationship in community of learners, and about the emotional ties between language and culture.

a.      Language Ego

As human beings learn to use second language, they a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting—a second identity. The new “language ego”, interviewed with the second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, defensiveness, a rising of inhibition. 

All second language learners need to be treated with affective tender loving care. Remember when you learned second language how you sometimes felt silly or shame, if not humaniliated when the lack of words and structures left you hopeless in face-to-face communication? Now they must fend for their emotional selves with paltry linguistic battery that leaves them with a feeling of total defenselessness.

Here some possibilities of providing affective supports;

1)                  Overtly display supportive attitudes to your students.

2)                  On more mechanical, lesson-planning level, your choice of technique and      sequence of technique  need to be cognitively challenging but not overwhelming at affective level.

3)                  Considering learners’ language ego probably will help you to determine.

4)                  Patience and understanding on your part will ease the process.

b.                  Self-confidence

Learner’s belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing a task is partially in their eventual success in attaining the task.

Some immediate class room applications of this principle emerge. First, give ample verbal and nonverbal assurance to students. Second, sequence technique from easier to more difficult.   

c.                    Risk-taking

Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of them selves a vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing task, must be willing to be “gamblers” in game of language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty. How our class can reflect the principle of risk-taking;

1)                  Create the atmosphere that can encourage students to try out language, to venture a response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer language.

2)                  Provide reasonable challenges in your technique—make them neither too easy nor too hard.

3)                  Help your student to understanding what calculated risk-taking lest some feel that they must blurt out any old response.

4)                  Respond students’ risky attempts with positive affirmation, praising, them for trying while at the same time warmly but firmly attending to their language.

d.                  Language Culture Connection

Language cultural intricately intertwined. Any time you learn language, you will learn something of cultures of speakers of that language. Whatever you teach a language  you also teach a complex system of cultural custom, values, and way of thinking, feeling, reacting.

Classroom application include the following;

1)                  Discuss cross-cultural differences with your students, emphasizing that “no culture is better than another” , but the cross-cultural understanding is an important facet of learning a language.

2)                  Include your techniques, certain activities and materials that illustrate the connection between language and culture.

3)                  Teach your students cultural connotation, especially the sociolinguistic aspects of language.

4)                  Screen your technique for materials that may be culturally offensive.

5)                  Make explicit to your students what you may take to for granted in your own culture.

Especially in second language learning context, the success of this learners adapt to anew cultural milieu will effect their language acquisition success and vice versa in some possibly significant ways.

In classroom, you can:

1)                  Help students to aware acculturation and its stage.

2)                  Stress the importance of second language as powerful tools adjustment in the new culture.

3)                  Be specially sensitive to any students who appear to discourage, then do what you can assist them.

C.    Psychomotor Domain

Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change and/or development in behavior and/or skills. Psychomotor Domain alternatives - especially for the development of children and young people, and for developing skills in adults that take people out of their comfort zones.

The proposed levels are:

1.      Imitation (copy)

Observe a skill and attempt to repeat it, or see a finished product and attempt to replicate it while attending to an exemplar. 

Possible Verbs : Attempt, copy, duplicate, imitate, mimic

2.      Manipulation (follow instructions)

Perform the skill or produce the product in a recognizable fashion by following general instructions rather than observation.

Possible Verbs : Complete, follow, play, perform, produce

3.      Develop Precision

Independently perform the skill or produce the product, with accuracy, proportion, and exactness; at an expert level.

Possible Verbs : Achieve automatically, excel expertly, perform masterfully

4.      Articulation (combine, integrate related skills)

Modify the skill or product the product to fit new situations; combine more than one skill in sequence with harmony and consistency.

Possible Verbs : Adapt, alter, customize, originate

5.      Naturalization (automate, become expert)

Completion of one or more skills with ease and making the skill automatic with limited physical or mental exertion.

Possible Verbs : Naturally, perfectly

The following list is a combination of the above taxonomies:

Psychomotor Domain
Level	Definition	Example
1. Observing	Active mental attending of a physical event.	The learner watches a more experienced person.  Other mental activity, such as reading may be a pert of the observation process.
2. Imitating	Attempted copying of a physical behavior.	The first steps in learning a skill. The learner is observed and given direction and feedback on performance. Movement is not automatic or smooth.
3. Practicing	Trying a specific physical activity over and over.	The skill is repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly.  Movement is moving towards becoming automatic and smooth.
4. Adapting	Fine tuning. Making minor adjustments in the physical activity in order to perfect it.	The skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often needed to provide an outside perspective on how to improve or adjust as needed for the situation.

CONCLUSION

There are three aspects in Principle of Teaching. They are Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. Three of them unite the intellectuality, personality and kinesthetic aspects. They have coherence to make teaching learning process goes smoothly. Cognitive aspect concerns with the students mind or intelligence, cognitive aspect is focus with the students personality and psychomotor learn about the students kinesthetic. By learning three of them, teacher can maximize the students’ ability.